Sailing Whitsunday :: Yachts Departing Daily for the Whitsundays

SAILING WHITSUNDAYS

Home

Whitsundays Information

Elements of Shipboard Safety

Wednesday, 03 May 2006

Elements of Shipboard Safety

If you are looking for a job on a sailing or dive vessel in the Whitsunday Islands a prerequisite is to have your Elements of Shipboard Safety. Courses are run on a regular basis in Airle Beach at either the Sailing Club or the Tafe College. Some basic knowledge that you will need follows.

TYPES OF MONHULLS

Boats with One Mast:

Sloops: The most common type of single-masted monohull. Sloops have either a masthead rig or a fractional rig. If a forestay attaches at the top of the mast, the rig is a masthead rig, and the mainsail and job are hoisted equally high. On a fractional rig sloop, the forestay stops about three-quarters of the way up the mast, and the mainsail is taller than the jib.

Catboats: The catboat only has a mainsail.

Boats with Two Masts:

Ketches: A ketch has two masts, the front one being taller. The smaller mast is called the mizzen. To be a ketch, the mizzenmast must be in front of the rudderpost.

Yawls: The yawl rig is very similar to the ketch rig and is usually seen only on older boats. The yawl's mizzenmast is usually smaller in height than the ketch.

Schooner: The schooner is a very traditional rig with two or more masts. The front mast must be shorter than the main mast.

WHAT TO WEAR

We recommend you go sailing several times before investing in specific sailing gear. Naturally, your clothing will depend on the type of sailing you intend on doing, and what time of the year it will take place .Whenever you go out on the water, it is likely you will get wet, so water and wind proof clothing is recommended.

In hot heather, fewer clothes are required but do not forget suntan lotion, sunglasses and hats. Remember the weather can change quickly so always be prepared for the worst weather expected on the day. It is not difficult to pack a jacket or keep one permanently in your sailing bag.

MANNERS & CUSTOMS

It is always a pleasure to be a member of a crew of a smart boat. Much of this smart impression is created by the smooth execution of maneuvers, but also important is the observance of the rules of etiquette and courtesy. A cruising boat is properly dressed flying a burgee and her national ensign.

THE BURGEE

The burgee is usually that of a club or association of which the skipper is a member, and is flown at all times when the boat is in commission with the skipper on board or absent for a period of no longer than 24 hours.

THE ENSIGN

The ensign is normally red. Other ensigns (blue and white) can be worn only if authorized by special warrant. At sea, the ensign is worn at all times. In harbour it is hoisted at 0800 in summer and 0900 in wintertime and is lowered at sunset or 2100, whichever is earlier. By passing a warship of any nationality, it is courteous to dip the ensign by lowering it until the warship responds by dipping and hoisting her. The ensign is not worn when racing.

THE COURTESY ENSIGN

When visiting a foreign country, the ensign of that country should be flown from the starboard spreader from arrival in, to departure from, the territorial waters. This is known as the Courtesy Ensign.

HOUSE FLAG

This is a rectangular flag with a design personal to the owner. The house flag is flown from the starboard spreader under the same circumstances as a burgee. If a courtesy ensign is flown from the starboard spreader, then the house flag is flown on the port spreader.

BEHAVIOUR IN PORT

When berthing alongside another boat, if anyone is on board it is normal to ask if you may come alongside. You should provide your own fenders and not rely upon the other boat to do so. If other boats have to be crossed to get ashore, this should be done by passing over their foredeck and not across the cockpit making as little noise as possible, especially late at night. On first crossing such a boat, ask permission to do so. Try to tread as lightly as possible and do not put weight or pressure on fittings that look inadequate. Noise should always be kept to a minimum when berthed in a marina or at a mooring/anchorage with other boats in the vicinity.

SAFETY

Safety on the water comes in many forms and at many levels. Although we stress you should never go sailing on a boat or in conditions that exceed your experience and comfort level, you should always expect the unexpected at any time you head out on the water. Check the weather before you go. Sources include television reports, newspaper, weatherfax and Internet at www.bom.gov.au, or the coastguard VHF station. Have the life rings / sling ready to deploy. If someone goes overboard, five minutes is too long to spend untying equipment.

Make sure the vessel you are on has a Man Overboard Plan, and everyone has a clear understanding of what to do during the emergency. Wear the correct gear for the voyage. You will be amazed how the right sailing gear will improve comfort and possibly your survival.

HOLD ON
Rule number one is Hold On. The old saying "One hand for the boat, one hand for yourself" is just as true today as in the days of square-riggers. You are responsible for your own safety first, and you never know when a wave, a gust of wind, or an unexpected grounding is going to take away your footing.

Here are some safety tips to help you stay on board:

Be ready for anything. A boat can get tossed about in any direction, or can come to an abrupt stop if it runs aground.
Different areas of the boat are safer than others, but sitting down in the cockpit is usually the safest place on deck.
If you must stand, bend your knees for better balance. The lowers our center of gravity and lets your legs be shock absorbers.
Many boats have grab rails along the cabin tops, and you can hold onto the lifeline with your other hand as you walk forward.
Never hold onto running rigging (lines used to trim sails), whether it's in use or not.
Sitting down with your feet braced is the best position to work when out of the cockpit.
Wearing non-skid shoes helps provide traction. However even with the best shoes decks can be as slippery as ice.

SAFETY EQUIPMENT

The safety equipment required to be carried on most recreational vessels in Australian enclosed waters is as follows:

    * Personal floatation devices (lifejackets) one per person on board
    * Bucket or bailer
    * Bilge pumps
    * Fire extinguishers
    * Waterproof torch
    * Anchor, chain/line attached
    * Lifebuoy with 30 metre line
    * Navigation lights
    * Sound signals
    * First Aid Kit
    * Epirb
    * Flares
    * VHF radio
    * Life Jackets

Approved lifejackets are required by law on board all boats. How many and what type depends on the size of your boat and the number of people on the boat. Life jackets vary by how they're used, and which one you need depends on where you're sailing. Some types are more suitable for rough ocean sailing while some are more comfortable for day sailing in warm, protected waters. Always ensure everyone on board has been fully briefed on the procedures for fitting and using jackets before sailing.

Safety Tips for using Life Jackets

Make sure that everyone knows where the life jackets are stored before you leave the dock.
Children, non-swimmers and anyone requiring assistance should always wear a life jacket.
Do not alter a life jacket if it doesn't fit. Get one that does.
Do no use your life jacket as a fender (a pad between your boat and the dock) as life jackets lose their buoyancy when compressed.
If your lifejacket is waterlogged, throw it away.
Make sure that the lifejacket fits, especially for children. Do not put an adult's life jacket on a small child.

Safety Harnesses

A safety harness works life an extra hand to help keep you on board as you move around the deck on bigger keelboats. Wearing a safety harness leaves your hands free for handling sheets, lines etc.
Never use a safety harness on a dinghy, which can capsize. Safety harnesses are only for keelboats. Adjust the harness so that it fits snugly. The harness attaches to a tether that clips onto any solid object, including jacklines (ropes, webbing or cables that run along the deck on either side of the cabin, the length of the boat). Never attach a safety harness to a lifeline, they put you closer to the edge of the boat and can break. Remember to walk on the high side whenever possible. Here are some recommended times to wear a harness:

Anytime a man-overboard rescue would be difficult.
When on deck alone.
When sailing at night, especially if you leave the cockpit.
When sailing in rough conditions.

Where possible, adjust the harness strop to the minimum length you require to operate, ie double the strop on itself and back to your harness when walking along the deck. If you fall overboard, you will stay closer to the boat with less slack.

First Aid Kit & Manual

Even if you are not planning an extended cruise, investing in a good first aid manual for your boat makes sense. Ask your doctor and check your local bookstore or marine store for a good first aid manual. Stow a first aid kit in a dry, watertight compartment with a list of contents on the box for easy reference. Those contents should include the items listed as follows:

    * Sterile, non-adhesive dressings *Gauze packs*
    * Several types and sizes of bandages (adhesive & elastic)*Rolled cotton*
    * Swabs
    * Roll of Adhesive tape
    * Disposable hand towelsStainless steel
    * Scissors
    * Safety pins
    * Stingose gel
    * Medium plastic bags
    * Thermo blanket
    * Note pad and pencil
    * Disposable gloves
    * Saline eye wash
    * Pain relievers
    * *Keep these in separate watertight containers

Before you sail, familiarize yourself with these items and review your first aid manual for how to use them to deal with cuts, burns, bleeding and head injuries. If anyone on board requires medication for an ongoing condition, make sure that medicine is on board. You never know when a fickle wind may turn a three-hour sail into a late night adventure, so be prepared!

DISTRESS SIGNALS

All crewmembers must know the distress procedures and should familiarize themselves with the operation of flares and signaling equipment (if available). A distress signal is only used when there is grave and imminent danger to the boat or crew.

The distress signals are listed fully as follows:

A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about one minute.
A continuous sounding with any fog-signalling apparatus.
Rockets or shells throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals.
A signal made by radio, telegraphy or by any other signally ode consisting of the group (505) in the Morse code.
A signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word "Mayday"
The international code signal of distress.
A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a all or anything resembling a ball.
Flames on the vessel (as from a burning oil barrel etc).
A rocket parachute flare or a hand flare showing a red light.
A smoke signal giving off an orange-coloured smoke.
Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side.

Flares

The best way to learn about flare use is through practical application. Queensland Maritime Academy runs Occupational Health & Safety At Sea courses which cover in theory and practice the correct use of the various flares. It is important to remember always to operate flares to leeward extend arm over the boat's side to minimize the risk of injury to self or damage to vessel.

Red Flares

A red flare (pinpoint flare) is for use when within sight of land or another boat, or to pinpoint your position when the rescuers are within visible range. It burns about one minute. Do not point it into the wind or you will be covered with sparks and smoke. Do not look directly at it.

Parachute Flare

A parachute rocket flare is for use when out of sight of land to raise alarm. It projects a very bright red parachute suspended flare to a height of about 300 metres, which burns for 40 seconds. A rocket turns toward the wind and so should b fired vertically, or in strong winds, 15 degrees downwind. If there is low cloud, it should be fired 45 degrees downwind so that the flare ignites below the cloud base.

Orange Smokeflare

This is a daytime distress signal, which produces a dense cloud of orange smoke easily seen from the air. In strong winds however, the smoke blows along the sea surface and may not be visible from shore or other boats. Handsmokes burn for 50 seconds and are used when rescuers are within visible range. Buoyant smokes, which consist of a canister with a ring pull, can be thrown into the water and burn for three minutes.

White Handflare

This is not used for distress but to warn other boats of your position. It burns for 50 seconds. It should not be looked at directly, as it is very bright. White parachute flares are available. These are generally used for demonstration purposes. They are very useful to illuminate the area in a Man Overboard situation.

FIRING FLARES

Handflare:

Point downward
Hold the handle only with one hand and pull the base of the handle with the other hand
Twist the base of the handle to the right
Strike the base of the handle to the palm of the hand or on a hard surface
Hold the flare up and out away from you

Parachute Rocket Flare:

Remove the top cap
Remove the bottom cap
Remove the safety pin
The trigger will drop down
Hold the signal ready to fire and squeeze tripperInstructions may vary for each make and model of flare.

It is very important that the instructions are red and fully understood by every crew member so that the action in an emergency will be prompt and correct.

FIRE PRECAUTIONS AND FIGHTING

Fire is one of the most serious dangers a sailor can face. Fire can occur by any number of means, but most start in the galley (kitchen), around the engine, or in the electrical system. Needless to say, you should put out fires immediately.The best way to deal with a fire is to smother it (thus starving it of oxygen) and to prevent it spreading by keeping the surrounding areas cool.Water should not be thrown on oil fires as this spreads the fire. Smothering it with sand or using a dry powder extinguisher is effective.Fires down below may be caused by people smoking. Smoking should be confined to the upper deck. A sleeping bag which catches fire should be doused with water.Once a fire has occurred, although it may appear to be extinguished, should be watched in case it relights. Bilges should be kept clean and well ventilated so that gas and fuel fumes do not accumulate.

Gas bottles should be outside in the cockpit where any leaks will drain overboard and not into the bilges. They should be turned off at the bottle when not in use. The gas in pipes can be burned out by turning the gas off at the bottle before turning it off at the cooker. LPG is heavier than air so any LPG leakages accumulate in low spaces (eg bilges) creating dangerous scenarios.

The engine should be checked regularly for fuel and oil leaks. Hatches should be closed when refueling and if any fuel spillage occurs, the boat should be hosed down and ventilated.There are basic actions that can be taken in the event of fire to lessen the risk to persons onboard and the vessel:

PROCEDURE

An alarm should be raised as soon as fire is discovered
Persons not involved in firefighting must move to a safe area.
Where practical, attempts should be made to extinguish fire
Where possible, fire should be contained in the compartment of origin
If fire cannot be controlled, vessel should be abandoned
Vessel should be positioned so as to minimize the fire spreading, eg if fire is aft, turn boat bow to wind etc

Factors to be considered should a fire occur:

Is any person at immediate risk from the fire?
How can the fire area be accessed?
What equipment is available to fight the fire? what else is threatened?
What precautions can be taken to prevent the spread of fire?
How can ship's construction be used to aid extinction or prevent spread of fire?

Other Factors to consider:

Are there flammable gases or liquids likely to be present?
Should electric circuits be broken?
Have ventilator fans to the fire area been stopped; can the fire compartment be sealed to exclude any fresh area?
Is there any flammable material in contact with the bulkheads or decks of the fire compartment?
Should the bulkheads or decks be cooled with water spray?
Is smoke giving the false impression of where the seat of the fire is situated? is the stability of the ship threatened?
Should provision be made for pumping out excess water?
Would a change in the vessel's course assist the fire fighting operation?

When A Fire Is Under Control:

Is it expedient to open up compartments for inspection?
Is it safe to ventilate the compartment to clear heat and smoke?

When Fire appears To Be Out:
Check whether fire is out. Make sure materials are not burning behind linings or deep seated smoulderings
Make steps to prevent reignition
Check damage to electrical apparatus and circuits

Fire Extinguishers
There are a variety of fire extinguishers, and Australian law requires vessels of differing sizes and types to carry the correct style/amount.A fire needs three things to exist: fuel (material), heat and oxygen. The rule for fighting a fire is to remove one of these elements as follows:

Fuel:Fire can be starved of fuel by removing the burning material
Heat:Heat is removed by cooling eg water
Oxygen:Fires can be starved of oxygen by a blanket, foam or CO2

Vessels are required to carry a Dry Chemical fire extinguisher, which is red with a white band.

How to use a Portable Fire Extinguisher
Read the operating instructions on the extinguisher. Approach the fire from upwind direction.

Water type
1.Carry to fire
2.Remove locking device
3.Squeeze lever or trigger
4.Direct stream at base of fire

Foam
1.Carry to fire
2.Remove locking device
3.Squeeze lever or trigger
4.Direct stream to flow foam over burning surface

Dry Powder type
1.Carry to fire
2.Remove locking device
3.Squeeze lever or trigger
4.Direct discharge at fire with a fanning motion
5.Beware of reignition if surface cover is interrupted

Gas Type
1.Carry to fire
2.Remove locking device
3.Squeeze lever or trigger
4.Sweep downwards to base of fire
5.Evaluate confined spaces

Where to use portable fire extinguishers
Classification of Fire:

CLASS AFires in ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics
CLASS BFires in flammable and combustible liquids and greases
CLASS CFires incombustible gases
CLASS DFires in combustible metals, ie aluminium steel
CLASS EIndicates that the extinguisher is suitable for fires which involve energized electrical equipment where the electrical non-conductivity of the chemical is of importance

PARTS OF A YACHT
Sailboats com in all shapes, types and sizes, but all sailing craft, big or small share some common features, including the five following similarities.

HULL
The hull is the floating body of the boat, and can be Main or mainsail made of a wide variety of materials, including wood, metal, fiberglass, plastic and even cement. The hull can be as small as a surfboard or over 30 metres long.

MAST
The mast is the vertical pole that supports the sails. Masts are made out of strong, lightweight material such as wood or aluminium. On bigger boats the mast is usually supported by an array of wires called the standard rigging. Some boats have several masts that can support many sails. Sailboats can be classified by the number and position of their masts.

SAILS
The mast and standard rigging support the third common feature of sailboats, the sails. A sail is simply a big piece of fabric that catches the wind and enables you to use its force to move the boat.

Following is a more detailed description of sail types:

Mainsail: The larges sail attached to the main mast
Headsail: Any sail that is set forward of the mast
Foresail: Any sail set forward of the mast except a spinnaker. A foresail on the forestay is a GENOA if it overlaps the mast and a JIB if it doesn't. A foresail set on a stay inside the forestay is a STAYSAIL, and a vessel carrying a foresail on the forestay and a staysail is described as CUTTER-RIGGED.
A boat carries more than one foresail of different sizes and cloth weight. She uses only one at a time to suit different conditions of wind and how close she can sail to it, for example:

Genoa: The largest headsail but made of the lightest material to catch the slightest breeze.
Working Jib & Heavy Weather Jib: are in between the genoa and storm jib. There are different sizes of genoas to handle wind strengths, with No 1 being the largest size.
Storm jib: The smallest, and made of the heaviest cloth to withstand storm winds.
Mizzen: The triangular sail hoisted on the aftermost mast.
Spinnaker: A racing sail for downwind work. It is made of lightweight nylon or mylar, which is cut very full and sets on the opposite side of the boat from the main. Large boats carry various spinnakers of different weights of materials for use in different conditions.
MPS: Spinnaker shaped sail set without a pole off the bow, or from the end of the extendible bowsprit.

Each part of a sail also has a name, which includes:
Head: The top corner of a sail
Tack: The front, bottom corner of a sail
Clew: The back, bottom corner of a sail
Foot: The bottom edge of a sail
Leech: The back edge of a sail
Luff: The front edge of a sail
Battens: Solid slats inserted into pockets along a sail leech to help maintain its shape

RIGGING
This is the term used to describe the equipment, lines and ropes used to raise and adjust the sails. Running rigging refers to all moving rigging, eg Sheets that raise sails and standing rigging is the term for fixed equipment, eg Backstays and spreaders.

Some of the types are as follows:

Sheet: The primary line that adjusts the sail trim (angle of sail to wind), usually referred to with the sail as it adjusts (eg mainsheet).
Halyard: The rope running up the mast used to pull the sails up.
Block: A pulley.
Cleat: A fitting used to tie off or secure a line so that it doesn't slip.
Cunningham: The control line system near the tack of the sail used to adjust luff tensions.
Outhaul: The control line system (mounted on the boom) used for controlling tension of the foot of the mainsail.
Traveller: A sail control system that can move the mainsheet attachment point on the boat from
side to side.
Boom Vang: The control line system running from the boom to the base of the mast that tensions the leech of the mainsail.

RUDDER & KEEL
The rudder hangs from the back end of the vessel to steer the boat. The keel's primary purpose is to provide lateral resistance to prevent the boat from skidding sideways when the wind is blowing over the side of the boat. If the keel is moveable, it is called a centerboard.

Other terms of a keelboat can be defined as:
Backstay:The support wire that runs from the top of the mast down to the stern.
Forestay:The support wire that runs from the top of the mast down to the bow. Also called the headstay.
Shrouds:The support wires that run from the mast down to the middle of the deck on either side. Sometimes called the sidestays.
Boom:The horizontal pole that supports the bottom edge of the mainsail.
Tiller:The lever arm that controls the position of the rudder; commonly found on smaller boats instead of a steering wheel.
Wheel:On larger boats, the steering wheel that controls the position of the rudder.
Bow:The front of the boat. The direction toward the bow is forward.
Stern:The back of the boat. The direction toward the stern is aft.
Cockpit:The area where the crew sit to operate the boat.
Deck:The top of the hull.
Hull:The floating part of body of the boat.
Topsides:The outer sides of the hull above the waterline.
Transom:The outer sides of the stern.
Beam:The width of the boat at any point.
Waterline:The water level on the hull.
Draft/Draught:The distance from the water's surface to the deepest point on the boat. The draft can also be referred to by the verb draw, as in "out boat draws seven fee" .
Freeboard:The distance between the deck of the boat and the water.

WINCHES

A MODERN DAY 2 SPEED SELF TAILING WINCH
A halyard or sheet is turned around a winch drum to take the strain when hoisting or sheeting in a sail. The most important thing to remember when winching is to keep your fingers well away from the winch when there is strain on the rope. Keep your hand at least six to eight inches from the winch drum when loading a winch, stay tidy ie Load from the bottom in a clockwise direction to the top and with at least 3 wraps together to avoid a riding turn (override).

With 3 wraps you now have mechanical advantage, it's ready to use. Once as tight as possible you can then cleat the sheet/halyard by taking the line over the silver guide and around the jamming cleat. If further adjustment is required the winch handle may be used to wind on further.

When easing out a sheet, place the palm of your hand against the turns on the drum (like a brake pad on the wheel of your car). The end of the sheet is held in the other hand and the sheet gradually eased out.

RIDING TURN/OVERRIDE
Sometimes one turn of the halyard or sheet on the winch drum slips over another and becomes jammed. This is called a riding turn or override. It may occur because there are too may turns of the rope on the winch drum, or because the lead on to or off the winch is not quite right. They can sometimes free themselves but, if hopelessly jammed, another line must be attached to the halyard or sheet by a rolling hitch and the tension taken on this line. With the load off the winch it is easy to remove the riding turn from the winch drum.

THINGS TO REMEMBER
Always keep hands clear of the winch drum when under load (min 6-8 inches)
Load winches in a clockwise direction. Use a minimum of three wraps or turns.
Load from bottom to top.
Bed tidy as you go.

CLEATS
A cleat is a fitting used to tie off or secure a line so that it doesn't slip. There are a number of cleats found on yachts. A common cleat for halyards is a horn cleat, a simple fitting with no moving part to break or malfunction. To secure a line around one of these cleats, put one complete wrap of rope around the base. This wrap provides friction to keep the line from slipping when cleating or nucleating. Then make a figure-eight and finish by twisting it to create hitch on the final turn, so that the end is underneath.

Some people believe a half hitch to secure can lock up in some circumstances and is not absolutely necessary. Their method of securing consisting of a round turn, followed by a figure of eight and finished off with another round turn.

Other types of cleats include the Cam Cleat (right), where a rope is pulled between the jaws of the cams. The rope is held fast until a quick upward pull releases the hold.
Cam Cleat (right) has diagonal teeth inside its groove which grip the rope.Spinlock systems (below) are now found on many modern yachts, and are favoured for being easy to use and capable of securely holding very large loads.

BLOCKS
Sheets and some lines run through blocks (pulleys). Some blocks just change the direction that the line travels, but when several blocks are used in combination (block and tackle systems) they make the line easier to pull. The amount of extra lifting power, called purchase, depends on the number of pulleys used and the arrangement. A four part mainsheet system requires only one-fourth the effort to pull in the sail as compared to a single rope hanging from the boom. The disadvantage is that you have to pull in four times as much line to bring in the sail.

No matter what the arrangement, purchase systems all have the same purpose: to optimize the mechanical advantage so that the average person can pull the line and sail the boat easily.Regardless of the block-and-tackle system used, you need to keep the line from slipping when you have the sail trimmed where you want it. To prevent slipping, you have two options:

1.Hold it
2.Cleat it

THE COMPASS
Deprived of visual references, man loses all sense of direction. The most important navigational instrument in a vessel is the compass. There is an old saying that rings true "Ã‹Å“The compass is the heat and the anchor is the hand of the ship'.Every mariner is advised to have the compass in his vessel adjusted and then to trust in it. It is more common to encounter disaster through one's own disbelief than the contrary. The compass does have errors but they can be determines very accurately, and it will guide a mariner to safety provided they exercise care. They should not permit any magnetic substance to be placed near to it to cause an unknown error.Sailors use several common types of compasses:

STEERING COMPASS
These are mounted permanently in the boat, usually in a position so that the helmsman can refer to them when steering. They come in two basic varieties:Binnacle or dome compass: These are mounted on a horizontal surface such as a pedestal or deck. They are easier to read and are popular on boats with steering wheels.Bulkhead compass: These are mounted on a vertical surface such as the back wall of a cabin and are used on boats that have no convenient location for a dome compass.

HANDBEARING COMPASS
Small, portable compasses that are not meant to replace a boat's primary steering compass. They make taking a bearing (measuring the compass course from your boat to an object) easier than with a bulkhead compass.

ELECTRONIC COMPASS
Electronic compasses use the principles of magnetism and electricity. They are popular in autopilots as a backup steering compass, and even in some hand bearing compasses. Of course, you should never rely solely on an electronic compass. What happens when the battery runs down?

ACCOUNTING FOR DEVIATION
Unfortunately all compasses do not agree to the direction of magnetic north. Metal objects nearby alter the effect of the earth's magnetic field on the compass's internal magnets and cause the compass to deviate from magnetic north. To minimise this effect, mount the compass far away from potential problems, like the engine, and never use iron fasteners or fittings nearby.No matter how careful you are, some deviation 15 degrees +/- is inevitable. So if you plan on using your compass for any sort of serious navigation, get your compass swung calibrated for deviation error. In practice, this involved process is usually reserved for larger boats 130ft + that require compass accuracy to the degree.

READING A COMPASS
The compass card (rotating piece on which the numbers are written) is divided into increments. The four main ones are the cardinal points, north (000Ã‚Â°), SE(135Ã‚Â°), SW(222Ã‚Â°) and NW(315Ã‚Â°) are also indicated by their initials. On a really large compass the smallest increments indicated by a # can be a single degree. Small compasses may have a # mark only for every 5Ã‚Â° increment. Therefore, the bigger the compass, the better! If you are sitting directly behind a dome compass, you can determine your boat's heading by lining up the centre lubber line fixed vertical post(s) around the edge of the compass card with the markings on the compass card. You can read your boat's heading on a bulkhead compass in a similar fashion, but notice that the centre lubber line is on the backside of the compass.

ISOLATED DANGER MARKS
Designates an isolated danger of limited extent which has navigable water eg an isolated shoal, rock or wreck.
Colour Black with one or more red horizontal bands.
TopmarkTwo black spheres positioned vertically and clearly separated.
LightA white flashing light showing groups of two flashes.

The characteristics may be best remembered by association of two flashes with two spheres as the topmarks.

SAFEWATER MARKS
Indicates that there is navigable water all around the mark, eg mid channel or landfall buoy.
ColourRed and white vertical stripes.
TopmarkA single red sphere.
LightExhibits a white light isophase, occulting, or single, long flash every 10 seconds.
Single flash and a single sphere association may help characteristics.

SPECIAL MARKS
Refer to chart as it indicates a special area or feature such as traffic separation marks, spoil ground marks, cable or pipe line marks including outfall pipes. Also used to define a channel within a channel. Eg a channel for deep draught boats in a wide estuary where the limits of the channel for normal navigation are marked by red and green lateral buoys.

ColourYellow
Topmark When a topmark is carried, it takes the form of a single yellow X.
Light Exhibits a white light isophase, occulting, or single, long flash every 10 seconds.
Single flash and a single sphere association may help characteristics.

Variations in the design of buoys will exist in many areas. The illustrations indicate the approved shapes, colouring and topmarks.

BLUE MIDDLE CHANNEL MARK
Fixed blue lights are identified as lead lights. They are commonly used to mark the centre of the channel on overhead bridges.

CARDINAL MARKS
A cardinal mark may indicate:
The deepest water in an area.
The safe side on which to pass a danger and to draw attention to a feature in a channel such as a bend, junction or an end of a shoal.

TOP MARKS
Black double cones clearly separated.
ColoursBlack and yellow horizontal bands with the position of the black band or bands relative to the respective cardinal points.

North Topmark points up, black and above yellow band
East Topmark points outward, black bands above and below yellow   band
South Topmark points down, black band below yellow band
West Topmark points inward, black band between yellow bands

A cardinal mark exhibits a white light and its quadrant is distinguished by a specific group of quick or very quick flashes.The frequencies of the flashes are:

North Uninterrupted flash
East 3 flashes in a group
South 6 flashes in a group followed by a long flash
West 9 flashes in a group

To aid memory, associate the number of flashes of each group with that of a clock face, three o'clock east six o'clock south, nine o'clock west.A cardinal mark indicates where the best and safest water may be found and is used in conjunction with the compass. It shows where a mariner has safe passage.

BUOYS AND BUOYAGE
The IALA Systems A and B refer to the two uniform systems of buoyage used around the world. Lateral marks in region A which includes most of Europe, Africa, Asia, NW & South Pacific and Australia are opposite in colour and characteristics to those using Systems B, which includes North and South America, the Philippines, Japan, Canada and South Korea.

IALA A and IALA B start from opposite datums ie IALA A is from seaward, and IALA B dalum is to seaward.

In Australia (System A) port hand lateral marks are red in colour with a cylindrical top mark. Starboard hand lateral marks are green with a cone shaped top mark.The direction of buoyage is always from seaward. The buoys are arranged so that a vessel unfamiliar with the area may safely enter the harbour and follow the route defined by the buoys. If leaving the harbour, the buoys would be read in reverse.

When traveling in the direction of buoyage, leave port hand marks to port (red to red) and starboard hand marks to starboard (green to green) unless you are familiar with the area.

LATERAL MARKS
Lateral marks are usually positioned to define well established channels and indicate port and starboard hand side of the navigation route into a port. Where there may be any doubt the direction of buoyage can be indicated on charts by the symbol:

Port mark is coloured red and the basic shape is a can; By night a port buoy shows a red light.

Starboard mark is coloured green and the basic shape is conical; by night a starboard buoy shows a green light.

ANCHORS
Anchors vary in design and performance as well as in size. The holding power of a modern anchor is dependent upon its design, and is proportional to the areas of the flukes' depth to which they are buried in the bottom. Plow style anchors are used on most yachts. Otherwise known as CQR's these anchors have better holding power than older type of anchors, and the holding power to weight ratio increases as the size decreases. It has a bent shank with a plough-shaped fitting hinged to the end. The plow is often kept secured up forward on a roller with the fluke hanging over the bow.

ANCHORING
Dropping anchor involves more than jus tying the anchor to some line and throwing it overboard. Anchoring involves such skills as picking a good spot, avoiding underwater hazards knowing the water's depth and tides, and what contour and type of bottom the anchorage has. Weather and forecasts also need to be taken into consideration. When anchoring the five main conditions to be considered are:

The depth of water at the place and its approaches, as well as the rise and fall of the tides.
The nature of the sea bottom.
Direction and strength of tide or current.
The direction and probably strength of the prevailing winds.
Any obstacles in the vicinity.

When dropping an anchor, the following steps should be taken:
Approach the spot from several boat lengths to leeward and then turn the boat head-to-wind.
Slow the boat down and stop right over your desired anchor spot.
Give the signal.
Drop the anchor until it touches bottom, then drift or motor backwards slowly paying out chain until you have deployed 6 x depth of water in chain length.

Always keep your body (especially feet and hands) away from and out of the loops of the anchor line as it pays out. You can tell when the anchor has touched bottom - either the chain stops paying out so fast, or you feel the weight of the anchor disappear as it settles in. You also need to ensure you leave out plenty of scope before cleating off the anchor line. You can ensure your anchor is set and holding in a couple of ways:

By touching the anchor rode with your hand, you can sometimes feel the anchor bounce over the bottom, similar to taking someone' pulse. When the anchor digs in, the bouncing stops but the line stretches and contracts with the boat's surges with the waves.
With the boat in reverse, you may be able to see the bow dip when the flukes of the anchor take a grip on the bottom.If you feel jerking motions, the anchor is dragging along the bottom. If your anchor keeps dragging, you can try any of the following techniques to get the anchor set:Let out more scope.
A quick tug on the anchor line may get the anchor to set.
Rev the engines in reverse to try and set the anchor.

When your senses tell you that the anchor is holding, try to confirm that by watching landmarks or a range. By sighting through two objects, you can establish a line sight and watch your position to ensure that you're not dragging. Establish a roster for anchor watch duty to be checked throughout each 24 hour period.

MAN OVERBOARD
This emergency should be treated, as not if, but when. Practice "worst case scenarios" ie recreate adverse weather, at night, short handed, unconscious person overboard etc. The following two methods are the most common retrieval procedures recommended for use in this emergency.

FIGURE-EIGHT METHOD (OR BEAM REACH METHOD)

   1. 1 Shout "Ã‹Å“Man Overboard'
   2. Appoint a crewmember to sport the MOB. If possible get someone to standby the radio to call for assistance if required, and activate the MOB feature on the GPS.
   3. Provide immediate flotation device such a Personal Flotation Devices, life rings, or life slings. In rough seas, consider throwing an orange smoke flare, and at night, one of two dolphin torches (always kept handy in the cockpit).
   4. Position the boat so the wind is coming across the beam (Beam Reach) and sail off about 10 boat lengths, (adjust distance according to the conditions). Remember the hardest thing will be sailing away from that person.
   5. Tack and point the boat at the MOB and release the main to see if it luffs.
   6. If the main is still driving, turn and sail the boat downwind quickly (adjusting your approach angle aiming for 50-60 degrees).
   7. When you think you're in the right position, cross reference with wind indicator and point the boat at the MOB. Check to see if sails flap.
   8. Haul in the main to "spill and fill" so you can creep towards the MOB at 1-2 knots monitoring your speed.
   9. Let the headsail flap, approach at 50-60 degrees off the wind aiming 6ft to windward of the boat (remember, as you slow down the wind and waves will push you sideways).
10. Stop by the MOB and effect the recovery from the windward side.
11. Ensure the crew is harnessed on, especially those operating near the side, if in rough conditions.
12. Approach slowly, with swimmer to leeward.

QUICKSTO METHOD

   1. Shout "Man Overboard"
   2. Appoint a crew member to spot the MOB. If possible get someone to standby the radio to call for assistance if required, and activate the MOB feature on the GPS.
   3. Provide immediate flotation device such as Personal Flotation Devices, life rings, or life slings. In rough seas consider throwing an orange smoke flare, and at night, one or two dolphin torches (don't forget to turn torch on before you throw it in). This action also serves to "Ã‹Å“litter' the area to assist in spotting the region where the MOB went in.
   4. IMMEDIATELY bring boat head-to-wind and beyond, check, double check for lines overboard, (turn engine on if available).
   5. Allow sail to back and further slow the boat.
   6. Continue to turn with the headsail backed until wind is abaft of the beam.
   7. Course is set on a beam-to-broad reach for two or three lengths then altered to nearly dead downwind.
   8. Drop the headsail while keeping the mainsail centred (keep sheets inside lifelines).
   9. Hold the downwind course till the MOB is abaft of the beam.
10. Gybe the boat.
11. Approach the MOB on a course of approx 45-60 degrees off the wind.
12. Make contact with the MOB using any suitable retrieval material.
13. Ensure the crew that is to assist with retrieving the MOB are harnessed on, if in rough conditions.
14. Effect recovery over the leeward side.
15. Approach slowly with swimmer to leeward

RULES OF THE ROAD

Rules of the Road are important to know in order to safely sail your way through waterways, channels, and harbours. Students undertaking this course in cities will obviously have more practical application for this knowledge, due to the high volume of marine traffic, as compared to the Whitsundays. However, no matter where you are sailing, you should always be aware of the rules to stay out of the way of large commercial vessels, eg barges, tugboats and big ships. Common sense is the most important asset when assessing

Rules of the Road.

Ensure your line of sight is not obstructed and all crew keep watch for possible dangers and traffic, alerting the helmsman at all times. Good seamanship comprises of 50% common sense, 40% caution and only 10% skill and sailing technique!

There are three phases to the main Rules of the Road and it is important to recognize that there is really no such thing as an Absolute Right of Way. There is always a "Ã‹Å“Stand On' vessel and a "Ã‹Å“Give Way' vessel.

Phase 1:Stand on vessel maintains course and speed.
Phase 2:If Stand On vessel is not comfortable with avoiding action taken (or not taken) by the Give Way vessel, she may take action herself.
Phase 3:If collision cannot be avoided by the action of the Give Way vessel alone, the

Stand On vessel must take avoiding action.

CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN SIGHT OF ONE ANOTHER
When two sailing vessels approach each other, one of them must keep out of the way of the other as follows:

1.When each has the wind on a different side, the vessel which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other vessel with the wind on the starboard side.

2.When both have the wind on the same side, the vessel which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the vessel which is to leeward.

3.If the vessel with the wind on the port side sees a vessel to windward and cannot determine with certainty whether the other vessel has the wind on port or on the starboard, she shall keep out of the way of the other.

OVERTAKING
Any vessel overtaking another shall keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken.
If you are unsure of whether you are overtaking another vessel, always assume you will

be and follow the rules accordingly.

HEAD ON SITUATIONS
When two power-driven vessels appear to be on a collision course, each shall alter

their course to starboard so that each will pass on the port side of each other.
When any vessel is unsure if they are on a collision course, assume you are and follow

the above rule.

CROSSING SITUATIONS
When two power-driven vessels are crossing paths, the vessel which has the other on her own

starboard side shall keep out of the way and if possible, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel.

WHEN GIVING WAY
1. Make your move in good time and make fairly large, obvious movements so your actions are clear to the other vessel.
2. Avoid passing ahead of the boat you are giving way to.
3. Bear in mind that large ships are unable to alter course or speed quickly.

RESPONSIBILITIES BETWEEN VESSELS:
A power-driven vessel shall keep out of the way of:

a) A vessel not under command (eg tug, barge etc)
b) A vessel restricted inability to manoeuvre eg big ships
c) A vessel engaged in fishing
d) A sailing vessel

A sailing vessel shall keep out of the way of:

a) A vessel not under command
b )A vessel restricted in ability to manoeuvre
c) A vessel engaged in fishing

A vessel engaged in fishing must keep out of way of:
1. A vessel not under command
2. A vessel restricted in ability to manoeuvre

A seaplane on the water shall keep clear of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.

The boat on starboard tack has right-of-way over the boat on part tack.
The leeward boat has right-of-way over the windward boat.
An overtaking boat has to keep clear.

STEERING

TACKING
The word tack has many meanings in sailing as does the word luff. The tack of the sail is its bottom front corner. The noun tack also refers to the boat's heading in relation to the wind.Tacking is the act of changing tacks by turning through the wind, entering the no-sail zone from one side, and exiting the other.

The two most common mistakes when tacking and gibing are:

1.Getting in irons (getting stuck pointing into the wind). To get out of irons and moving again on a boat without a jib, you should un-cleat or release the mainsheet, push the tiller or turn the wheel to one side, and then trim the sails and steer straight.

2.Sailing by the lee (sailing on a run with the boom on the wrong side of the boat). This is the precursor to the dreaded accidental gybe.To get to a point upwind, you can either tack once or you can tack many times. The steps to tacking are as follows:

Steps in Tacking

1.Prepare your crew by calling out "Ready to Tack" . Make sure that your crew are ready and in their positions. Call out "tacking" and begin turning the boat toward the wind (heading up).

2.As you begin to tack, the sail begins to luff wildly. This step is when beginners have problems, because if you stop turning at this point, you get stuck in the no-sail zone. Don't forget to duck your head as the boom swings across. Release the old headsail sheet. Crew and skipper switch sides.

3.Trim the new headsail sheet and keep turning until your sails are full on the new tack.

GYBING

Gybing is the other method of changing tacks by turning the boat away from the wind until the wind blows on the opposite side. Tacking is easier and safer than gibing, especially in strong winds. Gybing is still an important manoeuvre, particularly when running to a downwind destination in light or moderate wind and you just need to change your heading slightly.

Steps in Gybing

1.Make sure that you are sailing nearly dead downwind on a run. You can also start on a reach, but doing so requires a bigger turn, which is harder. Prepare your crew by calling out "Ready to gybe" . Make sure the crew is in position.

2.Call out "Gybing" and start turning the boat away from the wind (bearing away). Don't turn too fast. There is no need for speed because there is no equivalent to being stuck in irons on this side of the point of sail diagram. As you pass through dead downwind, pull the mainsheet so that the boom comes in and then gently ease the sheet out on the new side. It is important the helmsman hold the vessel just on the original tack until they can see that the crew has the mainsail controlled and in the central position. Only then have you completed your gybe.

3.Let the main out on the new gybe on the new leeward side. Helmsman and crew change sides. An accidental gybe (when the wind pushes the boom across unexpectedly) can be dangerous and can cause severe injury to any body parts in its path. Gybing by mistake occurs when you sail by the lee sailing on a run with the wind coming across the same side of the boat as the boom is on. Sailing by the lee should only occur when the wind is coming from behind, so you should be vigilant to it at any time you are broad reaching or running. The accident usually occurs when the helmsman loses concentration and inadvertently turns the boat away from the wind too far. Sailing by the lee can also occur if the wind shifts direction when you are steering straight. You can prevent sailing by the lee by watching your sailing and the wind direction. Some boats have an arrow-like wind indicator at the top of the mast that can help. Also watch the battens; if they're trying to flip over you are in a trouble zone.

Another good indicator that you are about to gybe is when your headsail collapses because it is totally blocked from the main. If the boom does start to come over unexpectedly, be sure to shout "Duck" to warn your crew.

SAILING TERMS AND MANOEUVRES

You need to be familiar with some basic sailing terminology before getting into sailing manoeuvres.

PORT AND STARBOARD TACK
Port is left and starboard is right when standing on a boat facing the bow. (An easy way to remember this is the saying, "There is no port left on the shelf" ). Using these terms is important when you're describing which tack a boat is on. When sailing, a boat is always either on a port tack or a starboard tack. Like almost everything else pertaining to sailing, the determining factor is wind. When you're sailing with the wind coming over the left side of your boat first, you are on a port tack. When the
wind is coming over the boat's right side first, you are on a starboard tack. Whether you are close-hauled, reaching or running doesn't matter; the determining factor is which side of the boat the wind is hitting first.

WINDWARD AND LEEWARD
The left side of your boat is always the port side, but which is the windward and which is the leeward side changes based on the angle of the wind to your boat. You need to know which way the wind is coming from. The wind always hits the windward side of the boat first. The leeward side then, is the other side of the boat. You can remember leeward because the word comes from in the lee, which means "Ã‹Å“out of wind'. The wind pushes your sails onto the leeward side. If your sails are in the centre, then they are luffing and you are in irons. Except when you are winging out the headsail on a run, you always set your sails on the leeward side. If you get confused about which side is windward and which is leeward, simply let the headsail or mainsail luff so that the sail flaps like a flat. Whichever side the sail is flapping towards is the leeward side.

HEADING UP AND BEARING AWAY
The two phrases heading up and bearing away help you when you are steering the boat. Their definitions are also relative to wind direction. When you make a turn towards the wind, you're heading up. When you are steering with a tiller and sitting in the proper position on the windward side, facing the sails, you push the tiller away from you to head up.

The term bearing away is more common than heading down or bearing off, but they all means a turn of the boat away from the wind direction. You pull the tiller toward you to bear away assuming you are sitting in the proper position. If you were to sail in a complete circle, you would, by definition, be bearing away half the time and heading up half the time.

POINTS OF SAIL
The world of sailing revolves around the wind. The ability to accurately sense changes in wind speed and direction is the single most valuable skill you can bring aboard a sailing vessel. Increasing your sensitivity and awareness of the wind is the first step in becoming a good sailor. The best way to track the wind is simply to feel it. You can also look around for clues to the wind direction:

Flag or wind vane on top of the mast Short pieces of ribbon or yarn ties to the shrouds
Look for anchored boats, which point at the wind (except in strong currents)
Ripples on the water

You cannot sail without understanding the Points of Sail diagram. This diagram looks like the face of a clock, with the wind blowing from 12 o'clock. At the top of the clock face, between about 10.30 and 1.30 is a sector called the no-sail zone. It is physically impossible to sail a boat in this zone. The sail zone is divided into three basic points of sail:

1.Close-hauled: Also called beating, sailing upwind, or sailing to windward. It is the closest course to the wind that you can effectively sail.

2.Running: The course you are steering when the wind is dead behind.

3.Reaching: Anywhere in between close-hauled and running.

Sailing in any direction in the sail zone is as easy as trimming the sail or you can just cleat the sail and turn the boat away from the wind until the sail fills.

Sailing Downwind

WIND AND SAILS
Modern America's Cup teams spend millions of dollars trying to quantify what makes a sailing yacht move and move fast. Boat movement is a highly complex problem dealing with fluids of vastly different densities (air and water), and a boat operates on the confused interface between those two fluids.

To understand the physical principles involved, take a look at the basic forces that propel a sailboat: the motion of air over sails and water over centerboard or keel. When a yacht is sailing with the wind behind it, what is going on is pretty obvious: the sails act like a parachute out in front of the boat as the boat moves with the wind. But the dynamics get more interesting when a crew wants the sailboat to sail at an angle to the wind.

First, look at how a simple airfoil (wing) generates lift. Put your hand out of the window of a moving car with your palm facing forward, and it simply gets pushed backwards. When you slowly rotate your hand into the wind, tipping your palm downwards, you can feel your hand begin to lift up. This "lift" is due to the motion of the air that passes above and below your hand. As you begin to twist your hand, the air traveling over the top of your hand speeds up relative to the air streaming under the bottom, as shown in the diagram. Fast-moving fluids create low pressure, so by twisting your hand, you generate a low pressure area over the top of your hand. This difference in pressure (caused by your hand "wing" with a slight angle of attack to the airflow, or slightly turned into the wind) results in an upward force that lifts your hand, as well as a slight sideways force pushing your hand downwind.

Understanding these two forces is crucial to understanding lift and why a sailboat moves forward. The same basic principle o wings works for birds, planes and yachts.
Here's what happens when a boat sail up wind. Firstly, look at the sail. When you pull in the mainsheet and fill the sail with wind, the sail creates a wing shape. That wind has an angle of attack to the wind flow. Just like your hand out of the car window, the air over the back side of the sail goes faster than the air on the front side. The resulting difference in pressure creates a force pushing the boat sideways and forward.

The initial lift is generated to leeward but the design of the boat (ie 'low and pointy') ensure the vessel is propelled in the direction of the least resistance (ie forward).

SAILING HANDLING

BENDING ON THE HEADSAIL
Most cruising boats carry several types of headsail but the same principle applies whatever the size. The headsail is secured to the forestay by fitting into a groove on the forestay, or in rare cases, by piston hanks. It can also be permanently rigged and furled around the forestay, ie a furling headsail fitted to a specific furling device (which usually the type we use). This is a modern convenience for easy handling.

1.Locate the tack, which is normally the corner bearing the sailmaker's name, and shackle it to the appropriate fitting on the stemhead.
2.Feed the head of the boltrope into the bottom on the foil and run your hand along the boltrope to the tack to see it is not twisted. The same rules apply when hoisting a piston hank to sail. However, make sure the luff doesn't come out or get jammed when hoisting, as they often tear.
3.Run your hand along the foot of the sail from the tack to the clew to see it is not twisted, and secure the headsail sheets to the clew using bowline knots, (or sometimes ashackle), and lead then through the appropriate blocks to the sheet winches.
4.There is no need to fit the halyard to the head of the sail until it is ready to be hoisted, so that tension can be kept on the halyard without the sail being pulled up.
5.Finally, lay the sail along the deck, roll it up and secure to the guardrail with sail ties or shock cord.

BENDING ON THE MAINSAIL
One of the first jobs required is to bend on the sails. This is best done before the boat leaves her berth, so that the sails can then be hoisted as soon as she is all clear.
Unless the boat has not been used for some time, the mainsail will already be fitted to the boom.

1. If not, start with the clew, feed the foot of the sail into the track onto the oom and pull it along the boom. When it is all in, secure the tack and tension at the foot of the
sail by adjusting the outhaul.

2. Fit the battens.

3. If there are slides along the luff (which is the most common), feed these into the mast track and push the securing pin into the mast after the last one to stop them falling out. If the sail has a rope along the luff instead of slides, do not feed this into the track until the sail is hoisted. It is usually better not to attach the halyard until the sail is about to be hoisted, because without tension on, it can get caught up round the spreaders, especially in gusty winds. If the halyard is fitted without immediately hoisting the sail, a good way to make sure that enough tension is maintained is to temporarily lead the halyard from the head of the sail down around a mast winch or cleat. The pull on the halyards then pulls the head of the sail downwards while the sail remains stowed. Make sure the shackle on the main halyard is tight.

4. Fold the mainsail neatly over the boom and secure with shock cord or sail ties.

HOISTING THE MAINSAIL
To raise the mainsail by using a winch, start by putting a couple of wraps of the halyard line in a clockwise direction around the winch. You just want enough wraps to enable you to hold the line without it slipping. As the load increases, you may need to add an extra wrap or two.

Even with a winch, the easiest way to hoist a sail on a bigger boat is by bouncing (pulling on) the halyard at the mast. As the halyard is pulled by a crewmember at the mast, another person in the cockpit takes up the slack in the halyard by pulling the halyard that's wrapped around the winch (this is called tailing). When the sail nears the top, the load may increase so much the bouncing is inefficient. Then you must grind (turn) the handle until the sail is to the top.

Common Mistakes:

1.Getting luff tape jammed. To fix, stop pulling the halyard and ease it until the person feeding the sail at the top of the mast can clear the jam and prepare the sail to slide
up cleanly again.

2.Make sure that the mainsheet has plenty of slack in it and is not cleated.

After you have the mainsail hoisted property, fix it there by securing the halyard in a cleat.

HOISTING A GENOA
Hoist a genoa while running, because if you hoist it while pointing into the wind, it flaps against the mast as you hoist. By hoisting a genoa while heading downwind, it is protected from the force of the wind by the mainsail. This system works equally well even if you only have a smaller jib. Anytime you sail downwind, be careful not to gybe by mistake.

LEAVING A BERTH
PREPARING THE MOORING LINES FOR LEAVING A BERTH
If there is neither a tidal stream running nor a strong wind blowing, then leaving a berth in a marina or alongside a jetty is quite straightforward. The boat may be secured by several types of lines, as shown below. Not all lines are normally required but depend rather on the type of movement you wish to control.

All lines except breast lines are removed, coiled and stowed. The breast lines are doubled back around a cleat or bollard on shore so that they can be let go from on board the boat, these become slip lines.

If there is a tidal stream running, then one line (usually a spring should remain attached until the last moment to stop the boat moving forwards or backwards. This spring can also be doubled back as a slip line. The skipper may detail a crewmember to standby on deck with a spare fender to fend off from any danger.

It may be necessary to move the stern of the boat away from the pontoon by motoring forward against a spring line, which has been passed around a bollard ashore. One end of the line is secured to the bow cleat and the other end held by a crewmember by passing a turn around the cleat. A fender is placed between the bow of the boat and the pontoon.

As soon as the boat is clear, all lines must be neatly coiled and stowed and all fenders removed and stowed. Any loose ends of rope left around are not only untidy and unseamanlike, but can lead to an accident, or trail overboard with the possibility of getting wrapped around the propeller.

HOISTING SAILS
CHECKLIST BEFORE HOISTING SAILS
1.The boat is in a good position to depart and is pointing "into" the wind. If the boat is not pointed into the wind, raising the mainsail may be impossible, because the wind fills the sails when it is partway up, putting too much load on the halyard.

2.The control lines especially the main and headsail sheets are properly rigged and have plenty of slack so hey are ready for instant use and not in the stowed position.
3.Everybody in on board!
4.Life jackets and safety gear are handy.
5.Loose gear is stowed.
6.Main and headsail are properly rigged and ready to hoist.
7.The rudder is secured (if appropriate on your vessel)
8.You have proper clothing and sunscreen on.

Before hoisting the sails, ensure enough open water is around so you can sail away easily.

THE COMPASS
STEERING A COMPASS COURSE
When the navigator sets a course to sail, he announces it to the helmsman, expecting him to follow that heading like a railroad track. But holding a compass course is difficult, especially at night in really wavy conditions. First getting accustomed to the natural movement of the compass card takes a little while.

Sometimes, like when sailing close-hauled in shifty winds, holding a compass course is just about impossible. However, at other times (such as in thick fog), holding a steady course is crucial. Here are some tips:

Pick a spot on the horizon: Steering while looking down at the compass is difficult.
Try and pick a spot on the horizon that seems to line up with the desired compass course, and
then rotate your eyes down to the compass only periodically to confirm your heading.

Steer an average heading: In big waves, when the compass card is swinging all around, try to bracket the desired heading by steering no more than, say 5Ã‚Â° on either side.

Pay attention and be honest: In tricky conditions, pay attention to your average heading and report that to the navigator in periodic increments.

THE CHART
The whole concept of navigating a vessel is based upon the naval chart. The chart is, in effect, the mariner's roadmap. But while there are many similarities between the familiar road map and the navel chart, there is also one very big difference: a road map deals solely with the land and virtually ignores anything seaward of the coastline. The naval chart deals with the coastline and the sea, and ignores most things inshore of the coastline (except for those we use in obtaining bearings/position/lines etc.

Charts come in a variety of scales. To orient yourself to the scale of a particular chart, refer to the scale of latitude which bounds the vertical edges of every chart. No matter where you are on the planet, one degree of latitude equals 60 nautical miles (therefore one degree of latitude measured on the earth's surface = one nautical mile). Each degree is divided up into 60 minutes, and each minute is further carved into either 60 seconds or decimal minutes. The same is not true of Longitude, which varies in distance depending on how close you are to the equator. Longitude is indicated by the vertical lines on a chart or globe and designates the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.

All charts are numbered for identification. They also have:

Depths in metres or fathoms
Scale
Special information
Compass Rose with variation
Tidal Diamond Information
Parallels of Latitude and degrees, minutes and tenths of minutes on the sides
Meridians of Longitude and degrees, minutes and tenths of minutes across the top and bottom
Name of Surveyor and age of chart

Hints to remember when using charts:
1. Always use the largest scale chart, because
     (a) Any errors are reduced to a minimum
     (b) If the chart is distorted, these errors will have least effect
     (c) More detail is shown
     (d) The plate from which it is made is corrected before the plates of small scale charts

2. Transfer positions from one chart to another by bearing and distance from a point,common to both charts and check by latitude and longitude. This is necessary as the
     graduations of the two charts may differ.

3. Always check the vessel's position as soon as possible after her position has been transferred from one chart to another.

4. Always use the nearest compass rose because there will be less effect of distortion and the correct variation will be used and an error will be avoided if the chart used is drawn on the gnomonic projection.

The basic equipment required for chart work includes:

Parallel ruler
Dividers
Compass
Soft rubber
Soft leaded pencils (2B)
Pencil sharpener
Compass protractor
Australia Pilot Tide Tables
Deviation Tables
Admiralty List of Lights

The Queensland Marine Academy also offers courses in coastal Navigation details all aspects of chartwork and navigation.

METEOROLOGY
Weather can simply be defined as the state or condition of the atmosphere at a particular time in a particular place. Unfortunately, it changes from minute to minute and can be different even a few nautical miles away.

Predicting these fickle changes and the future developments is an invaluable science conducted routinely by the Bureau of Meteorology. These forecasts and warnings are extremely beneficial to the mariner, enabling you to pre-empt what the weather wil do and allow you to make preparations to plan in advance for the weather conditions you are likely to encounter.

You may be surprised to learn that the Weather Bureau is right 80% of the time.

HOW TO ACCESS THESE WEATHER FORECASTS
The Weather Bureau reminds mariners about the various ways they can get weather information:

Daily television and newspaper weather reports
Weather By Fax (60c/min) on 1800 061 434
Access the Bureau's internet site at http://www.bom.gov.au
By radio facsimile from AXI Darwin or AXM Melbourne
On weather alert handheld receivers in coastal areas where this service is provided by

the Weather alert organization

MAIN FEATURES OF WEATHER MAPS
The Bureau of Meteorology supplies daily information on atmospheric conditions and features to provide surface charts. This surface chart has little or no geographical information except for towns or cities, but rather a series of lines representing places of atmospheric pressure (called Isobars) including:

Highs and lows
Any associated fronts
Ridges
Troughs
Rainfall
Observed wind speed

WIND STRENGTHS / FORCE OF THESE WARNINGS

Strong wind warning:average wind 25-33 knots
Storm warning:average wind at least force 10 (34-40 knots+)
Tropical cyclone warning:
Category 1:less than 68 knots
Category 2:68-90 knots
Category 3:90-120 knots
Category 4:120-150 knots (eg Cyclone Tracey)
Category 5:more than 150 knots (eg Cyclone Orson)

DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION
Wind direction is normally understood to be the direction from which the wind is blowing, eg west. The wind blows from west to east.

WHAT CAUSES WIND AND CREATES WIND SPEED

The sun is the engine that drives the earth's weather. De to the uneven heating of the earth's surface, the atmosphere is in a constant state of imbalance, or disequilibrium. This constant struggle for equilibrium combines with the influence of the earth's rotation and the gravitational pulls of the sun and moon to keep the atmosphere in constant motion.

The heating of the earth's surface by the sun creates different areas of atmospheric pressure. This controls the movement of air as it generally moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. This resultant movement is called wind. Wind speed is proportional to the space of the isobars: where the isobars are widely spaced or absent, winds are lighter or even calm. This is commonly called the pressure gradient.

HIGHS AND LOWS

HIGHS
Region of atmospheric pressure represented on weather maps by a closed system of isobars. Air within the high is descending in the centre and flows in an anticlockwise direction (in the southern hemisphere) slightly outwards across the isobars.

LOWS

Cyclone or Lows are the terms applied to weather systems in which the winds blow in a clockwise sense in the southern hemisphere. This is an area of low pressure within a closed system of isobars. Low pressure means the air is light and is therefore rising. Remember, the atmosphere is three dimensional so as the air is flowing around the pressure systems, air is also rising or sinking with those systems. Also note that it is NOT the custom of the Weather Bureau to refer to these lows as "Ã‹Å“cyclones'. This term is reserved in practice for tropical cyclones.

FRONTS

A front is formed when a body of air of one temperature meets a body of air of another temperature. A cold front occurs when a cold air mass invades an area occupied by warm air.

The cold air, being denser, wedges itself under the warm air. If the temperature difference between the cold and warm sectors is large and the warm air mass is unstable, connection along the front is massive. The sever cold front would be called a Line Squall. This is often accompanied by a long low black "Ã‹Å“roll cloud' stretching across the horizon in advance of the front. Line squalls should be treated with extreme caution. They can occur in apparently perfect weather conditions but have wind speeds up to cyclone force. A warm front is the border where cold air is being replaced by overriding warm air. This rarely occurs in the southern hemisphere.